the ethical obligation to share the results of scientific research, including data and methods.

 the tendency for individuals to change their behavior when they know they are being observed. Some social science experiments use deception to control for the observer effect.

1. The tendency for the results of scientific research to be free from bias. 2. An ethical and epistemological principle instructing one to take steps to minimize or control for bias.

the first international ethics code for human subjects research, adopted by the Nuremberg Council during the war crimes tribunals in 1947. The code was used as a basis for convicting Nazi physicians and scientists for war crimes related to their experiments on concentration camp prisoners.

the failure to comply with research regulations, institutional policies, or ethical standards. Serious or continuing non-compliance in human subjects research should be promptly reported to the institutional review board and other authorities. See Compliance.

a failure to follow the standard of care which results in harm to a person or organization. In science, research that is sloppy, careless, or poorly planned or executed may be considered negligent.

heinous experiments conducted on concentration camp prisoners, without their consent, during World War II. Many of the subjects died or received painful and disabling injuries. Experiments included wounding prisoners to study healing; infecting prisoners with diseases to test vaccines; and subjecting prisoners to electrical currents, radiation, and extremes of temperature or pressure.

an NSF office that oversees the integrity of NSF-funded research. OIG reviews reports of research misconduct inquiries and investigations conducted by institutions and investigations of other problems, such as mismanagement of funds.

(see Ethics).

spending research funds wastefully or illegally; for example, using grant funds allocated for equipment to pay for travel to a conference. Some types of mismanagement may also constitute fraud or embezzlement.