ethical guidelines for protecting animal welfare in research, including reduction (reducing the number of animals used in research), replacement (replacing higher species with lower ones or animals with cells or computer models), and refinement (refining research methods to minimize pain and suffering).

in science, openly disclosing information that concerned parties would want to know, such as financial interests or methodological assumptions. See also Conflict of interest, management.

a study, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, conducted in Tuskegee, Alabama from 1932-1972, which involved observing the progression of untreated syphilis in African American men. The men were not told they were in a research study; they thought they were getting treatment for “bad blood.” Researchers also steered them away from clinics where could receive penicillin when it became available as a treatment for syphilis in the 1940s.

an unexpected problem that occurs in human subjects research. Serious UPs that are related to research and suggest a greater risk of harm to subjects or others should be promptly reported to institutional review boards and other authorities.

taking advantage of someone’s vulnerability to convince them to make a decision.

An ethical theory which holds that the right thing to do is to produce the greatest balance of good/bad consequences for the greatest number of people. Act utilitarians focus on good resulting from particular actions while rule utilitarians focus on happiness resulting from following rules. Utilitarians may equate the good with happiness, satisfaction of preferences, or some other desirable outcomes. See also Consequentialism, Ethical theory.

something that is worth having or desiring, such as happiness, knowledge, justice, or virtue.

an ethical-dilemma involving a conflict among different values.

something that is valuable for the sake of achieving something else, e.g. a visit to the dentist is valuable for dental health.

something that is valuable for its own sake, e.g. happiness, human life.