heinous experiments conducted on concentration camp prisoners, without their consent, during World War II. Many of the subjects died or received painful and disabling injuries. Experiments included wounding prisoners to study healing; infecting prisoners with diseases to test vaccines; and subjecting prisoners to electrical currents, radiation, and extremes of temperature or pressure.

a failure to follow the standard of care which results in harm to a person or organization. In science, research that is sloppy, careless, or poorly planned or executed may be considered negligent.

the failure to comply with research regulations, institutional policies, or ethical standards. Serious or continuing non-compliance in human subjects research should be promptly reported to the institutional review board and other authorities. See Compliance.

the first international ethics code for human subjects research, adopted by the Nuremberg Council during the war crimes tribunals in 1947. The code was used as a basis for convicting Nazi physicians and scientists for war crimes related to their experiments on concentration camp prisoners.

1. The tendency for the results of scientific research to be free from bias. 2. An ethical and epistemological principle instructing one to take steps to minimize or control for bias.

 the tendency for individuals to change their behavior when they know they are being observed. Some social science experiments use deception to control for the observer effect.

the ethical obligation to share the results of scientific research, including data and methods.

a federal agency that oversees human subjects research funded by the Department of Health and Human Services, including research funded by the National Institutes of Health. OHRP publishes guidance documents for interpreting the Common Rule, sponsors educational activities, and take steps to ensure compliance with federal regulations, including auditing research and issuing letters to institutions concerning non-compliance.

a U.S. federal agency that oversees the integrity of research funded by the Public Health Service, including research funded by the National Institutes of Health. ORI sponsors research and education on research integrity, and reviews reports of research misconduct inquiries and investigations from institutions.

restricting a person’s decision-making for their own good. In soft paternalism, one restricts the choices made by someone who has a compromised ability to make decisions (see Decision-making capacity); in hard paternalism, one restricts the choices made by someone who is fully autonomous (see autonomy).